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🔣 Symbol Reference

Mathematical Symbols and Operators

Unicode has dedicated blocks for mathematical operators, arrows, letterlike symbols, and alphanumeric characters covering virtually every symbol used in modern mathematics. This guide catalogs the most important mathematical Unicode symbols with their code points, LaTeX equivalents, and usage context.

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Unicode dedicates more code points to mathematics than to almost any other domain. The Mathematical Operators block (U+2200–U+22FF), the Supplemental Mathematical Operators block (U+2A00–U+2AFF), and scattered symbols across other blocks give mathematicians, scientists, and developers a complete palette for typesetting formulas in plain text. This guide organises them into functional categories, provides code points and HTML entities, and includes LaTeX equivalents for each major symbol.

Quick Copy-Paste Table — Essential Math Symbols

Symbol Name Code Point LaTeX
+ Plus U+002B +
− Minus U+2212 -
× Multiplication U+00D7 \times
÷ Division U+00F7 \div
± Plus-Minus U+00B1 \pm
∓ Minus-Plus U+2213 \mp
= Equals U+003D =
≠ Not Equal U+2260 \neq
≈ Almost Equal U+2248 \approx
≡ Identical To U+2261 \equiv
< Less Than U+003C <
> Greater Than U+003E >
≤ Less Than or Equal U+2264 \leq
≥ Greater Than or Equal U+2265 \geq
∞ Infinity U+221E \infty
∑ N-Ary Summation U+2211 \sum
∏ N-Ary Product U+220F \prod
√ Square Root U+221A \sqrt{}
∛ Cube Root U+221B \sqrt[3]{}
∫ Integral U+222B \int
∂ Partial Differential U+2202 \partial
∇ Nabla U+2207 \nabla
π Pi U+03C0 \pi
∈ Element Of U+2208 \in
∉ Not an Element Of U+2209 \notin
∩ Intersection U+2229 \cap
∪ Union U+222A \cup
⊂ Subset Of U+2282 \subset
⊃ Superset Of U+2283 \supset
∅ Empty Set U+2205 \emptyset
∧ Logical AND U+2227 \wedge
∨ Logical OR U+2228 \vee
¬ Logical NOT U+00AC \neg
∀ For All U+2200 \forall
∃ There Exists U+2203 \exists
∴ Therefore U+2234 \therefore
∵ Because U+2235 \because

Arithmetic Operators

These are the symbols of basic arithmetic. Note the distinction between the ASCII minus-hyphen (-, U+002D) and the proper Unicode minus sign (−, U+2212) — in typeset mathematics, the Unicode minus is preferred because it has the same width as the plus sign.

Symbol Name Code Point HTML Entity Notes
+ Plus Sign U+002B &#x2B; ASCII
− Minus Sign U+2212 &#x2212; Proper typographic minus
- Hyphen-Minus U+002D &#x2D; ASCII — not preferred for math
× Multiplication Sign U+00D7 &#xD7; Not the letter x
÷ Division Sign U+00F7 &#xF7; Obelus
± Plus-Minus Sign U+00B1 &#xB1; Error margin notation
∓ Minus-Plus Sign U+2213 &#x2213; Complement of ±
· Middle Dot (multiplication) U+00B7 &#xB7; Vector dot product
∙ Bullet Operator U+2219 &#x2219; Mathematical bullet product
⋅ Dot Operator U+22C5 &#x22C5; Preferred dot product 
<!-- Properly typeset: 5 × 3 = 15, not 5 x 3 = 15 -->
<p>5 &#xD7; 3 = 15</p>
<p>E = mc&#xB2;</p>

Comparison and Equality Operators

Symbol Name Code Point LaTeX Meaning
= Equals Sign U+003D = Equality
≠ Not Equal To U+2260 `
eq` Inequality
≈ Almost Equal To U+2248 \approx Approximation
≃ Asymptotically Equal U+2243 \simeq Asymptotic equality
≅ Approximately Equal U+2245 \cong Congruence
≡ Identical To U+2261 \equiv Definition or modular equality
≢ Not Identical To U+2262 `
ot\equiv`
≤ Less-Than or Equal U+2264 \leq
≥ Greater-Than or Equal U+2265 \geq
≪ Much Less-Than U+226A \ll Order of magnitude less
≫ Much Greater-Than U+226B \gg Order of magnitude greater
≺ Precedes U+227A \prec Partial order
≻ Succeeds U+227B \succ Partial order
∝ Proportional To U+221D \propto

Roots and Powers

Symbol Name Code Point LaTeX
√ Square Root U+221A \sqrt{}
∛ Cube Root U+221B \sqrt[3]{}
∜ Fourth Root U+221C \sqrt[4]{}

Superscript digits for powers use dedicated Unicode code points:

Symbol Meaning Code Point
² Squared (superscript 2) U+00B2
³ Cubed (superscript 3) U+00B3
⁰ Superscript 0 U+2070
¹ Superscript 1 U+00B9
⁴ Superscript 4 U+2074
⁵ Superscript 5 U+2075 
<!-- E = mc² -->
<p>E = mc&#xB2;</p>

<!-- Pythagorean theorem: a² + b² = c² -->
<p>a&#xB2; + b&#xB2; = c&#xB2;</p>

Calculus Symbols

Symbol Name Code Point LaTeX Use
∫ Integral U+222B \int Single integral
∬ Double Integral U+222C \iint Area integral
∭ Triple Integral U+222D \iiint Volume integral
∮ Contour Integral U+222E \oint Line integral (closed)
∂ Partial Differential U+2202 \partial Partial derivative
∇ Nabla / Del U+2207 `
abla` Gradient operator
∆ Increment U+2206 \Delta Change / Laplacian
∞ Infinity U+221E \infty Limit, series
ℓ Script Small L U+2113 \ell Arc length, Lagrangian
ħ Planck's Constant U+0127 \hbar Reduced Planck's constant

Set Theory

Symbol Name Code Point LaTeX Meaning
∈ Element Of U+2208 \in x ∈ A: x is in set A
∉ Not an Element Of U+2209 `
otin`
∋ Contains as Member U+220B `
i` A ∋ x
∅ Empty Set U+2205 \emptyset Set with no elements
∩ Intersection U+2229 \cap Elements in both sets
∪ Union U+222A \cup All elements in either set
⊂ Subset Of U+2282 \subset A ⊂ B: A is inside B
⊃ Superset Of U+2283 \supset
⊆ Subset of or Equal To U+2286 \subseteq
⊇ Superset of or Equal To U+2287 \supseteq
⊄ Not a Subset Of U+2284 `
ot\subset`
ℕ Natural Numbers U+2115 \mathbb{N} {0, 1, 2, …}
ℤ Integers U+2124 \mathbb{Z} {…, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, …}
ℚ Rational Numbers U+211A \mathbb{Q} Fractions
ℝ Real Numbers U+211D \mathbb{R} Continuum
ℂ Complex Numbers U+2102 \mathbb{C} a + bi

Logic Symbols

Symbol Name Code Point LaTeX Truth Table Meaning
∧ Logical AND U+2227 \wedge True iff both true
∨ Logical OR U+2228 \vee True iff at least one true
¬ Logical NOT U+00AC `
eg` Inverts truth value
⊕ Exclusive OR (XOR) U+2295 \oplus True iff exactly one true
→ Implication U+2192 o If … then …
↔ Biconditional U+2194 \leftrightarrow If and only if (iff)
⊢ Proves / Turnstile U+22A2 \vdash Syntactic entailment
⊨ Models / Forces U+22A8 \models Semantic entailment
∀ Universal Quantifier U+2200 \forall For all
∃ Existential Quantifier U+2203 \exists There exists
∄ Does Not Exist U+2204 `
exists`

Greek Letters in Mathematics

Greek letters have their own Unicode code points in the Greek and Coptic block (U+0370–U+03FF) and are not defined by the Mathematical Operators block.

Symbol Name Code Point Common Math Use
α Alpha U+03B1 Angle, significance level, learning rate
β Beta U+03B2 Angle, regression coefficient
γ Gamma U+03B3 Euler–Mascheroni constant, gamma function
δ Delta (small) U+03B4 Small change, Dirac delta
ε Epsilon U+03B5 Small quantity, error
θ Theta U+03B8 Angle
λ Lambda U+03BB Eigenvalue, wavelength
μ Mu U+03BC Mean, prefix micro (10⁻⁶)
π Pi U+03C0 Ratio circumference/diameter ≈ 3.14159
σ Sigma (small) U+03C3 Standard deviation
Σ Sigma (capital) U+03A3 Summation
τ Tau U+03C4 2π, time constant
φ Phi U+03C6 Golden ratio ≈ 1.618, Euler's totient
ω Omega (small) U+03C9 Angular frequency
Ω Omega (capital) U+03A9 Ohm (electrical resistance)

Fractions

Unicode includes precomposed fraction characters in the Number Forms block:

Symbol Fraction Code Point
½ One Half U+00BD
⅓ One Third U+2153
⅔ Two Thirds U+2154
¼ One Quarter U+00BC
¾ Three Quarters U+00BE
⅕ One Fifth U+2155
⅙ One Sixth U+2159
⅛ One Eighth U+215B

HTML Entity Reference

<!-- Common math in HTML without MathML -->
<p>The quadratic formula: x = (&#x2212;b &#xB1; &#x221A;(b&#xB2; &#x2212; 4ac)) / 2a</p>
<p>Euler's identity: e<sup>i&#x03C0;</sup> + 1 = 0</p>
<p>Set notation: A &#x2229; B &#x2286; A &#x222A; B</p>

MathML vs Unicode Characters

For complex equations, use MathML (embedded in HTML5) rather than Unicode characters — MathML handles spacing, sizing, and accessibility correctly. For inline symbols in prose ("the value approaches ∞"), Unicode characters are more appropriate.

<!-- MathML for complex expressions -->
<math>
  <mfrac>
    <mrow><mi>d</mi><mi>y</mi></mrow>
    <mrow><mi>d</mi><mi>x</mi></mrow>
  </mfrac>
</math>

<!-- Unicode for inline symbol reference -->
<p>As x → ∞, f(x) → 0.</p>

Summary

Unicode's mathematical symbol coverage is comprehensive — 960+ symbols in the Mathematical Operators block alone, supplemented by Greek letters, superscript/ subscript digits, and specialist symbols in other blocks. The most practical symbols for web content are the comparison operators (≠ ≤ ≥ ≈), set theory symbols (∈ ∩ ∪ ⊂), calculus operators (∫ ∂ ∇), and the logical quantifiers (∀ ∃). For complex equations, combine Unicode inline symbols with MathML or a rendering library like MathJax or KaTeX.

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